Noesis

Biology

The living world, from cell to ecosystem.

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462notes
chapters
38chapters
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196tests
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Test bank →Learning path →

Phase 1 — Foundations of Life & Biochemistry

Absolute beginner · 4–6 weeks4 chapters
1.1

What Is Biology & Characteristics of Life

18 topics
  1. 1.1.1Define biology and its major sub-disciplines
  2. 1.1.2List the seven characteristics of living things
  3. 1.1.3Distinguish living vs non-living vs once-living
  4. 1.1.4Explain metabolism as anabolism vs catabolism
  5. 1.1.5Describe homeostasis with examples (temperature, pH, glucose)
  6. 1.1.6Explain growth and development in organisms
  7. 1.1.7Describe reproduction (sexual vs asexual) at basic level
  8. 1.1.8Explain responsiveness - irritability to stimuli
  9. 1.1.9Describe adaptation over time
  10. 1.1.10Outline the levels of biological organization (atom → biosphere)
  11. 1.1.11Define emergent properties at each organizational level
  12. 1.1.12Explain the cell as the basic unit of life
  13. 1.1.13Describe the scientific method steps
  14. 1.1.14Differentiate hypothesis, theory, and law
  15. 1.1.15Identify independent, dependent, and controlled variables
  16. 1.1.16Explain the role of controls in experiments
  17. 1.1.17Use SI units and metric prefixes in biology
  18. 1.1.18Interpret simple data tables and line graphs
1.2

Chemistry of Life Basics

16 topics
  1. 1.2.1Describe atomic structure (protons, neutrons, electrons)
  2. 1.2.2Explain atomic number and mass number
  3. 1.2.3Define isotopes and their biological uses
  4. 1.2.4Distinguish ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds
  5. 1.2.5Explain polar vs nonpolar covalent bonds
  6. 1.2.6List the major elements in living organisms (CHNOPS)
  7. 1.2.7Explain why carbon is central to life
  8. 1.2.8Describe properties of water (cohesion, adhesion)
  9. 1.2.9Explain water's high specific heat and biological role
  10. 1.2.10Describe water as the universal solvent
  11. 1.2.11Explain surface tension and capillary action
  12. 1.2.12Define pH and the pH scale
  13. 1.2.13Distinguish acids, bases, and neutral solutions
  14. 1.2.14Explain buffers and their role in homeostasis
  15. 1.2.15Define molecule, compound, and mixture
  16. 1.2.16Explain chemical reactions and reactants - products
1.3

Biomolecules — Carbohydrates & Lipids

15 topics
  1. 1.3.1Define monomers and polymers
  2. 1.3.2Explain dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis
  3. 1.3.3Identify carbohydrate elements and functions
  4. 1.3.4Distinguish monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides
  5. 1.3.5Name common monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose)
  6. 1.3.6Describe glycosidic bond formation
  7. 1.3.7Compare starch, glycogen, and cellulose structure - function
  8. 1.3.8Explain chitin in fungi and arthropods
  9. 1.3.9Identify lipid elements and general properties
  10. 1.3.10Describe triglyceride structure (glycerol + fatty acids)
  11. 1.3.11Distinguish saturated vs unsaturated fatty acids
  12. 1.3.12Explain phospholipid structure and amphipathic nature
  13. 1.3.13Describe steroid structure and examples (cholesterol)
  14. 1.3.14Explain functions of lipids (energy, insulation, signaling)
  15. 1.3.15Describe waxes and their biological roles
1.4

Biomolecules — Proteins & Nucleic Acids

15 topics
  1. 1.4.1Identify protein elements and functions
  2. 1.4.2Draw the general structure of an amino acid
  3. 1.4.3Explain peptide bond formation
  4. 1.4.4Describe primary protein structure
  5. 1.4.5Describe secondary structure (alpha helix, beta sheet)
  6. 1.4.6Describe tertiary and quaternary structures
  7. 1.4.7Explain protein denaturation and causes
  8. 1.4.8List protein functions (structural, enzymatic, transport, defense)
  9. 1.4.9Identify nucleic acid elements
  10. 1.4.10Describe nucleotide structure (sugar, phosphate, base)
  11. 1.4.11Distinguish purines and pyrimidines
  12. 1.4.12Compare DNA and RNA structure
  13. 1.4.13Explain complementary base pairing
  14. 1.4.14Describe ATP structure and role as energy currency
  15. 1.4.15Use biochemical food tests (Benedict's, iodine, Biuret, Sudan)

Phase 2 — Cells, Energy & Division

Beginner–intermediate · 6–8 weeks8 chapters
2.1

Cell Theory & Microscopy

8 topics
  1. 2.1.1State the three tenets of cell theory
  2. 2.1.2Identify contributions of Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, Schwann, Virchow
  3. 2.1.3Distinguish magnification and resolution
  4. 2.1.4Compare light and electron microscopes (TEM, SEM)
  5. 2.1.5Calculate magnification and actual size from scale bars
  6. 2.1.6Explain staining techniques and their purpose
  7. 2.1.7Prepare a wet mount slide
  8. 2.1.8Convert between micrometers, nanometers, millimeters
2.2

Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells

7 topics
  1. 2.2.1Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
  2. 2.2.2Describe bacterial cell structure (nucleoid, plasmid, capsule)
  3. 2.2.3Describe the bacterial cell wall and flagella
  4. 2.2.4Compare plant and animal cells
  5. 2.2.5Explain the endosymbiotic theory
  6. 2.2.6Describe the surface-area-to-volume ratio constraint
  7. 2.2.7Explain why cells remain microscopic
2.3

Organelles & Their Functions

15 topics
  1. 2.3.1Describe nucleus structure and function
  2. 2.3.2Explain the nucleolus and ribosome assembly
  3. 2.3.3Describe rough vs smooth endoplasmic reticulum
  4. 2.3.4Explain Golgi apparatus function
  5. 2.3.5Describe ribosome structure and role
  6. 2.3.6Explain mitochondria structure and function
  7. 2.3.7Describe chloroplast structure and function
  8. 2.3.8Explain lysosome function and autophagy
  9. 2.3.9Describe peroxisomes and their role
  10. 2.3.10Explain vacuoles in plant and animal cells
  11. 2.3.11Describe the cytoskeleton (microfilaments, microtubules, intermediate filaments)
  12. 2.3.12Explain centrioles and the centrosome
  13. 2.3.13Describe cilia and flagella structure (9+2 arrangement)
  14. 2.3.14Explain the cell wall composition in plants
  15. 2.3.15Trace the endomembrane system protein pathway
2.4

Cell Membrane & Transport

17 topics
  1. 2.4.1Describe the fluid mosaic model
  2. 2.4.2Explain phospholipid bilayer arrangement
  3. 2.4.3Identify membrane proteins (integral, peripheral)
  4. 2.4.4Explain the role of cholesterol in membranes
  5. 2.4.5Describe selective permeability
  6. 2.4.6Distinguish passive and active transport
  7. 2.4.7Explain simple diffusion
  8. 2.4.8Explain facilitated diffusion and channel - carrier proteins
  9. 2.4.9Describe osmosis and water potential
  10. 2.4.10Define hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions
  11. 2.4.11Explain plasmolysis and turgor in plant cells
  12. 2.4.12Explain crenation and lysis in animal cells
  13. 2.4.13Describe primary active transport (sodium-potassium pump)
  14. 2.4.14Explain secondary active transport (co-transport)
  15. 2.4.15Describe endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis)
  16. 2.4.16Describe receptor-mediated endocytosis
  17. 2.4.17Explain exocytosis
2.5

Enzymes & Bioenergetics Basics

14 topics
  1. 2.5.1Define metabolism, energy, and ATP
  2. 2.5.2Explain the laws of thermodynamics in biology
  3. 2.5.3Distinguish exergonic and endergonic reactions
  4. 2.5.4Define activation energy
  5. 2.5.5Explain enzymes as biological catalysts
  6. 2.5.6Describe the active site and lock-and-key model
  7. 2.5.7Explain the induced-fit model
  8. 2.5.8Describe effect of temperature on enzyme activity
  9. 2.5.9Describe effect of pH on enzyme activity
  10. 2.5.10Explain substrate concentration effects
  11. 2.5.11Distinguish competitive and non-competitive inhibition
  12. 2.5.12Explain allosteric regulation
  13. 2.5.13Describe feedback inhibition
  14. 2.5.14Define cofactors and coenzymes
2.6

Cellular Respiration

11 topics
  1. 2.6.1Write the overall equation for aerobic respiration
  2. 2.6.2Describe glycolysis inputs and outputs
  3. 2.6.3Explain pyruvate oxidation (link reaction)
  4. 2.6.4Describe the Krebs cycle inputs and outputs
  5. 2.6.5Explain the electron transport chain
  6. 2.6.6Describe chemiosmosis and ATP synthase
  7. 2.6.7Calculate ATP yield from one glucose
  8. 2.6.8Distinguish aerobic and anaerobic respiration
  9. 2.6.9Describe lactic acid fermentation
  10. 2.6.10Describe alcoholic fermentation
  11. 2.6.11Explain the role of NAD+ and FAD as electron carriers
2.7

Photosynthesis

12 topics
  1. 2.7.1Write the overall equation for photosynthesis
  2. 2.7.2Describe chloroplast structure relevant to photosynthesis
  3. 2.7.3Explain photosynthetic pigments and absorption spectra
  4. 2.7.4Describe the light-dependent reactions
  5. 2.7.5Explain photolysis of water
  6. 2.7.6Describe photophosphorylation (cyclic and non-cyclic)
  7. 2.7.7Explain the Calvin cycle (carbon fixation)
  8. 2.7.8Describe the role of RuBisCO
  9. 2.7.9Distinguish C3, C4, and CAM plants
  10. 2.7.10Explain photorespiration
  11. 2.7.11List limiting factors of photosynthesis
  12. 2.7.12Compare photosynthesis and respiration
2.8

Cell Division

17 topics
  1. 2.8.1Describe the cell cycle phases (G1, S, G2, M)
  2. 2.8.2Explain interphase events
  3. 2.8.3Describe chromosome structure (chromatid, centromere)
  4. 2.8.4Explain the stages of mitosis (PMAT)
  5. 2.8.5Describe cytokinesis in plant and animal cells
  6. 2.8.6Explain the function of mitosis
  7. 2.8.7Describe cell cycle checkpoints
  8. 2.8.8Explain the role of cyclins and CDKs
  9. 2.8.9Relate uncontrolled division to cancer
  10. 2.8.10Distinguish diploid and haploid cells
  11. 2.8.11Explain homologous chromosomes
  12. 2.8.12Describe the stages of meiosis I and II
  13. 2.8.13Explain crossing over and chiasmata
  14. 2.8.14Describe independent assortment
  15. 2.8.15Compare mitosis and meiosis
  16. 2.8.16Explain how meiosis generates genetic variation
  17. 2.8.17Describe nondisjunction and its consequences

Phase 3 — Genetics & Molecular Biology

Intermediate · 7–9 weeks5 chapters
3.1

Mendelian Genetics

11 topics
  1. 3.1.1Define key terms (gene, allele, genotype, phenotype)
  2. 3.1.2Distinguish dominant and recessive alleles
  3. 3.1.3Distinguish homozygous and heterozygous
  4. 3.1.4State Mendel's law of segregation
  5. 3.1.5State Mendel's law of independent assortment
  6. 3.1.6Solve monohybrid crosses with Punnett squares
  7. 3.1.7Solve dihybrid crosses
  8. 3.1.8Use the test cross to determine genotype
  9. 3.1.9Calculate probability ratios in offspring
  10. 3.1.10Apply the product and sum rules
  11. 3.1.11Construct and interpret pedigree charts
3.2

Extensions of Mendelian Genetics

12 topics
  1. 3.2.1Explain incomplete dominance
  2. 3.2.2Explain codominance (e.g., ABO blood groups)
  3. 3.2.3Describe multiple alleles
  4. 3.2.4Explain polygenic inheritance
  5. 3.2.5Describe pleiotropy
  6. 3.2.6Explain epistasis
  7. 3.2.7Describe sex-linked inheritance
  8. 3.2.8Explain X-linked recessive disorders (hemophilia, colorblindness)
  9. 3.2.9Describe sex determination systems
  10. 3.2.10Explain linkage and recombination frequency
  11. 3.2.11Construct simple genetic linkage maps
  12. 3.2.12Describe environmental effects on phenotype
3.3

DNA Structure & Replication

12 topics
  1. 3.3.1Summarize evidence that DNA is the genetic material (Griffith, Avery, Hershey-Chase)
  2. 3.3.2Describe the Watson-Crick double helix model
  3. 3.3.3Explain antiparallel strands and the 5'-3' directions
  4. 3.3.4Explain Chargaff's rules
  5. 3.3.5Describe semi-conservative replication (Meselson-Stahl)
  6. 3.3.6Explain the role of DNA helicase
  7. 3.3.7Describe the function of DNA polymerase
  8. 3.3.8Distinguish leading and lagging strands
  9. 3.3.9Explain Okazaki fragments and DNA ligase
  10. 3.3.10Describe primers and primase
  11. 3.3.11Explain telomeres and telomerase
  12. 3.3.12Describe DNA proofreading and repair mechanisms
3.4

Transcription, Translation & Gene Expression

13 topics
  1. 3.4.1Describe the central dogma of molecular biology
  2. 3.4.2Distinguish mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA
  3. 3.4.3Describe transcription initiation, elongation, termination
  4. 3.4.4Explain the role of RNA polymerase and promoters
  5. 3.4.5Describe RNA processing (5' cap, poly-A tail, splicing)
  6. 3.4.6Explain introns and exons
  7. 3.4.7Describe alternative splicing
  8. 3.4.8Read the genetic code from a codon table
  9. 3.4.9Explain degeneracy of the genetic code
  10. 3.4.10Describe the ribosome's A, P, E sites
  11. 3.4.11Explain translation initiation, elongation, termination
  12. 3.4.12Describe the role of tRNA and anticodons
  13. 3.4.13Explain post-translational modification
3.5

Mutations & Gene Regulation

13 topics
  1. 3.5.1Define mutation and mutagen
  2. 3.5.2Distinguish point mutations (substitution, insertion, deletion)
  3. 3.5.3Explain silent, missense, and nonsense mutations
  4. 3.5.4Describe frameshift mutations
  5. 3.5.5Distinguish chromosomal mutations (deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation)
  6. 3.5.6Relate mutations to genetic disorders (sickle cell, CF)
  7. 3.5.7Explain germline vs somatic mutations
  8. 3.5.8Describe the lac operon (inducible system)
  9. 3.5.9Describe the trp operon (repressible system)
  10. 3.5.10Explain transcription factors and enhancers
  11. 3.5.11Describe epigenetics (DNA methylation, histone modification)
  12. 3.5.12Explain the role of microRNA and RNA interference
  13. 3.5.13Describe gene regulation in development

Phase 4 — Organismal Biology & Physiology

Intermediate–advanced · 8–10 weeks9 chapters
4.1

Digestive System

11 topics
  1. 4.1.1Describe the function of the digestive system
  2. 4.1.2Trace the path of food through the alimentary canal
  3. 4.1.3Distinguish mechanical and chemical digestion
  4. 4.1.4Describe the role of teeth and saliva
  5. 4.1.5Explain stomach function and gastric juices
  6. 4.1.6Describe small intestine structure (villi, microvilli)
  7. 4.1.7Explain the role of the pancreas and bile
  8. 4.1.8List digestive enzymes and their substrates
  9. 4.1.9Describe nutrient absorption mechanisms
  10. 4.1.10Explain large intestine and water reabsorption
  11. 4.1.11Describe peristalsis
4.2

Circulatory System

12 topics
  1. 4.2.1Describe blood components (plasma, RBCs, WBCs, platelets)
  2. 4.2.2Explain the function of hemoglobin
  3. 4.2.3Describe heart structure and chambers
  4. 4.2.4Trace pulmonary and systemic circulation
  5. 4.2.5Explain the cardiac cycle
  6. 4.2.6Describe the conduction system (SA, AV node)
  7. 4.2.7Compare arteries, veins, and capillaries
  8. 4.2.8Explain blood pressure and its regulation
  9. 4.2.9Describe blood clotting mechanism
  10. 4.2.10Explain ABO and Rh blood group systems
  11. 4.2.11Describe the lymphatic system role
  12. 4.2.12Compare open and closed circulatory systems
4.3

Respiratory System

9 topics
  1. 4.3.1Describe the pathway of air through the respiratory tract
  2. 4.3.2Explain alveolar gas exchange
  3. 4.3.3Describe the mechanics of breathing (diaphragm, intercostals)
  4. 4.3.4Explain inhalation and exhalation pressure changes
  5. 4.3.5Describe oxygen and CO2 transport in blood
  6. 4.3.6Explain the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve
  7. 4.3.7Describe the Bohr effect
  8. 4.3.8Explain regulation of breathing rate
  9. 4.3.9Compare respiratory surfaces across organisms (gills, tracheae)
4.4

Nervous System

12 topics
  1. 4.4.1Describe neuron structure (dendrites, axon, soma)
  2. 4.4.2Distinguish sensory, motor, and interneurons
  3. 4.4.3Explain the resting membrane potential
  4. 4.4.4Describe the action potential
  5. 4.4.5Explain saltatory conduction and myelin
  6. 4.4.6Describe synaptic transmission and neurotransmitters
  7. 4.4.7Compare the CNS and PNS
  8. 4.4.8Describe brain regions and functions
  9. 4.4.9Explain the reflex arc
  10. 4.4.10Distinguish somatic and autonomic systems
  11. 4.4.11Compare sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
  12. 4.4.12Describe sensory receptors and the eye - ear basics
4.5

Endocrine System

10 topics
  1. 4.5.1Distinguish endocrine and exocrine glands
  2. 4.5.2Describe the major endocrine glands and locations
  3. 4.5.3Explain hormone types (steroid vs peptide)
  4. 4.5.4Describe hormone mechanisms of action
  5. 4.5.5Explain the hypothalamus-pituitary axis
  6. 4.5.6Describe insulin and glucagon in glucose regulation
  7. 4.5.7Explain thyroid hormones and metabolism
  8. 4.5.8Describe adrenal hormones and stress response
  9. 4.5.9Explain negative feedback in hormone control
  10. 4.5.10Describe the menstrual cycle hormonal control
4.6

Excretory System & Homeostasis

8 topics
  1. 4.6.1Describe kidney structure and the nephron
  2. 4.6.2Explain filtration, reabsorption, and secretion
  3. 4.6.3Describe urine formation
  4. 4.6.4Explain osmoregulation
  5. 4.6.5Describe the role of ADH and aldosterone
  6. 4.6.6Explain nitrogenous waste forms (ammonia, urea, uric acid)
  7. 4.6.7Describe thermoregulation mechanisms
  8. 4.6.8Explain the role of the liver in homeostasis
4.7

Immune System

12 topics
  1. 4.7.1Distinguish innate and adaptive immunity
  2. 4.7.2Describe physical and chemical barriers
  3. 4.7.3Explain the inflammatory response
  4. 4.7.4Describe phagocytosis by macrophages and neutrophils
  5. 4.7.5Distinguish B cells and T cells
  6. 4.7.6Explain antibody structure and function
  7. 4.7.7Describe humoral vs cell-mediated immunity
  8. 4.7.8Explain antigen presentation and MHC
  9. 4.7.9Describe immunological memory
  10. 4.7.10Explain active vs passive immunity
  11. 4.7.11Describe vaccines and herd immunity
  12. 4.7.12Explain allergies and autoimmune disorders
4.8

Reproductive System & Development

9 topics
  1. 4.8.1Describe male reproductive anatomy
  2. 4.8.2Describe female reproductive anatomy
  3. 4.8.3Explain spermatogenesis and oogenesis
  4. 4.8.4Describe fertilization
  5. 4.8.5Explain early embryonic development (cleavage, blastula, gastrula)
  6. 4.8.6Describe the role of the placenta
  7. 4.8.7Explain stages of pregnancy and birth
  8. 4.8.8Describe contraception methods overview
  9. 4.8.9Explain hormonal control of reproduction
4.9

Plant Biology

12 topics
  1. 4.9.1Describe plant tissue types (dermal, vascular, ground)
  2. 4.9.2Explain xylem and phloem structure - function
  3. 4.9.3Describe root, stem, and leaf anatomy
  4. 4.9.4Explain transpiration and the cohesion-tension theory
  5. 4.9.5Describe translocation in phloem (pressure-flow)
  6. 4.9.6Explain stomatal opening and closing
  7. 4.9.7Describe plant hormones (auxin, gibberellin, cytokinin, ABA, ethylene)
  8. 4.9.8Explain tropisms (photo-, gravi-, thigmotropism)
  9. 4.9.9Describe plant reproduction (pollination, fertilization)
  10. 4.9.10Explain seed and fruit formation
  11. 4.9.11Describe the alternation of generations
  12. 4.9.12Explain photoperiodism and flowering

Phase 5 — Ecology, Evolution & Diversity

Intermediate–advanced · 6–8 weeks7 chapters
5.1

Ecology & Ecosystems

12 topics
  1. 5.1.1Define ecology and levels of ecological organization
  2. 5.1.2Distinguish biotic and abiotic factors
  3. 5.1.3Describe habitat and ecological niche
  4. 5.1.4Explain food chains and food webs
  5. 5.1.5Describe trophic levels and energy flow
  6. 5.1.6Construct ecological pyramids (energy, biomass, numbers)
  7. 5.1.7Explain the 10% rule of energy transfer
  8. 5.1.8Describe the carbon cycle
  9. 5.1.9Describe the nitrogen cycle
  10. 5.1.10Describe the water and phosphorus cycles
  11. 5.1.11Distinguish primary and secondary succession
  12. 5.1.12Describe major biomes and their characteristics
5.2

Population & Community Ecology

11 topics
  1. 5.2.1Define population density and distribution
  2. 5.2.2Explain exponential vs logistic growth
  3. 5.2.3Describe carrying capacity
  4. 5.2.4Distinguish density-dependent and density-independent factors
  5. 5.2.5Compare r-selected and K-selected species
  6. 5.2.6Interpret survivorship curves
  7. 5.2.7Describe predation and its effects
  8. 5.2.8Explain competition (interspecific, intraspecific)
  9. 5.2.9Describe symbiosis (mutualism, commensalism, parasitism)
  10. 5.2.10Explain keystone species and their role
  11. 5.2.11Describe biodiversity and its importance
5.3

Conservation & Human Impact

9 topics
  1. 5.3.1Explain causes of biodiversity loss
  2. 5.3.2Describe habitat fragmentation effects
  3. 5.3.3Explain bioaccumulation and biomagnification
  4. 5.3.4Describe the greenhouse effect and climate change
  5. 5.3.5Explain eutrophication
  6. 5.3.6Describe ozone depletion
  7. 5.3.7Explain invasive species impacts
  8. 5.3.8Describe conservation strategies
  9. 5.3.9Explain sustainable resource management
5.4

Evolution & Natural Selection

11 topics
  1. 5.4.1Describe evidence for evolution (fossils, anatomy, molecular)
  2. 5.4.2Distinguish homologous and analogous structures
  3. 5.4.3Explain vestigial structures
  4. 5.4.4Describe Darwin's theory of natural selection
  5. 5.4.5Explain variation, overproduction, and differential survival
  6. 5.4.6Distinguish natural and artificial selection
  7. 5.4.7Describe types of selection (directional, stabilizing, disruptive)
  8. 5.4.8Explain sexual selection
  9. 5.4.9Describe adaptive radiation
  10. 5.4.10Explain convergent and divergent evolution
  11. 5.4.11Describe coevolution
5.5

Population Genetics & Speciation

11 topics
  1. 5.5.1State the Hardy-Weinberg principle and assumptions
  2. 5.5.2Calculate allele and genotype frequencies
  3. 5.5.3Explain genetic drift and the bottleneck - founder effects
  4. 5.5.4Describe gene flow and migration
  5. 5.5.5Explain the role of mutation in evolution
  6. 5.5.6Define species (biological species concept)
  7. 5.5.7Distinguish allopatric and sympatric speciation
  8. 5.5.8Describe reproductive isolation mechanisms (pre - postzygotic)
  9. 5.5.9Explain gradualism vs punctuated equilibrium
  10. 5.5.10Describe the origin of life hypotheses
  11. 5.5.11Explain phylogenetic trees and cladistics
5.6

Taxonomy & Classification

9 topics
  1. 5.6.1Explain the purpose of classification
  2. 5.6.2Describe the binomial nomenclature system
  3. 5.6.3List the taxonomic hierarchy (domain to species)
  4. 5.6.4Describe the three-domain system
  5. 5.6.5Characterize the six kingdoms
  6. 5.6.6Distinguish Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya
  7. 5.6.7Describe the main features of each eukaryotic kingdom
  8. 5.6.8Explain dichotomous keys
  9. 5.6.9Describe molecular phylogenetics in classification
5.7

Microbiology

13 topics
  1. 5.7.1Describe bacterial morphology and arrangement
  2. 5.7.2Explain Gram staining and cell wall differences
  3. 5.7.3Describe bacterial reproduction (binary fission)
  4. 5.7.4Explain bacterial genetic exchange (conjugation, transformation, transduction)
  5. 5.7.5Describe bacterial growth curves
  6. 5.7.6Explain virus structure and classification
  7. 5.7.7Compare lytic and lysogenic cycles
  8. 5.7.8Describe retroviruses and reverse transcription
  9. 5.7.9Explain prions and viroids
  10. 5.7.10Describe protists, fungi, and their roles
  11. 5.7.11Explain the role of microbes in disease and ecology
  12. 5.7.12Describe antibiotics and antibiotic resistance
  13. 5.7.13Explain aseptic technique and microbial culturing

Phase 6 — Advanced & Modern Biology

Advanced / cutting-edge · 8–10 weeks5 chapters
6.1

Genomics

12 topics
  1. 6.1.1Define genome, proteome, and transcriptome
  2. 6.1.2Describe the Human Genome Project
  3. 6.1.3Explain DNA sequencing (Sanger method)
  4. 6.1.4Describe next-generation sequencing (NGS)
  5. 6.1.5Explain whole-genome and exome sequencing
  6. 6.1.6Describe genome annotation
  7. 6.1.7Explain comparative genomics
  8. 6.1.8Describe single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)
  9. 6.1.9Explain genome-wide association studies (GWAS)
  10. 6.1.10Describe non-coding DNA and the ENCODE findings
  11. 6.1.11Explain pharmacogenomics
  12. 6.1.12Describe personalized - precision medicine
6.2

Genetic Engineering & CRISPR

15 topics
  1. 6.2.1Describe recombinant DNA technology
  2. 6.2.2Explain restriction enzymes and their use
  3. 6.2.3Describe plasmids as cloning vectors
  4. 6.2.4Explain DNA ligation and transformation
  5. 6.2.5Describe gene cloning workflow
  6. 6.2.6Explain the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
  7. 6.2.7Describe qPCR and RT-PCR applications
  8. 6.2.8Explain gel electrophoresis
  9. 6.2.9Describe DNA fingerprinting
  10. 6.2.10Explain the CRISPR-Cas9 mechanism
  11. 6.2.11Describe guide RNA design
  12. 6.2.12Distinguish knockouts and knock-ins
  13. 6.2.13Explain base editing and prime editing
  14. 6.2.14Describe gene therapy approaches
  15. 6.2.15Discuss ethical issues of genome editing
6.3

Biotechnology Applications

13 topics
  1. 6.3.1Describe transgenic organisms and GMOs
  2. 6.3.2Explain production of insulin via bacteria
  3. 6.3.3Describe Bt crops and herbicide resistance
  4. 6.3.4Explain golden rice and biofortification
  5. 6.3.5Describe vaccine production technologies (mRNA, recombinant)
  6. 6.3.6Explain monoclonal antibody production
  7. 6.3.7Describe stem cells and regenerative medicine
  8. 6.3.8Explain induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs)
  9. 6.3.9Describe cloning (reproductive and therapeutic)
  10. 6.3.10Explain tissue engineering and organoids
  11. 6.3.11Describe industrial fermentation and bioreactors
  12. 6.3.12Explain biofuels and bioremediation
  13. 6.3.13Describe synthetic biology and engineered pathways
6.4

Bioinformatics & Computational Biology

12 topics
  1. 6.4.1Define bioinformatics and its goals
  2. 6.4.2Describe biological databases (GenBank, UniProt, PDB)
  3. 6.4.3Explain sequence alignment (pairwise, multiple)
  4. 6.4.4Describe BLAST and homology searching
  5. 6.4.5Explain scoring matrices (BLOSUM, PAM)
  6. 6.4.6Describe phylogenetic tree construction algorithms
  7. 6.4.7Explain gene prediction methods
  8. 6.4.8Describe protein structure prediction (AlphaFold)
  9. 6.4.9Explain RNA-seq data analysis basics
  10. 6.4.10Describe variant calling pipelines
  11. 6.4.11Explain data visualization in genomics
  12. 6.4.12Introduce machine learning in biology
6.5

Systems Biology & Frontiers

13 topics
  1. 6.5.1Define systems biology and holistic modeling
  2. 6.5.2Describe gene regulatory networks
  3. 6.5.3Explain metabolic network modeling
  4. 6.5.4Describe signal transduction networks
  5. 6.5.5Explain omics integration (multi-omics)
  6. 6.5.6Describe emergent behavior in biological systems
  7. 6.5.7Explain mathematical modeling of biological systems
  8. 6.5.8Describe the microbiome and its systemic effects
  9. 6.5.9Explain epigenomics at the genome scale
  10. 6.5.10Describe single-cell sequencing technologies
  11. 6.5.11Explain spatial transcriptomics
  12. 6.5.12Discuss synthetic genomes and minimal cells
  13. 6.5.13Describe current ethical and societal challenges in biology